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Weekend Drive –21st Nov – 22nd Nov ’09 @ Gurgaon Work Location - KOLKATA
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Sand. Made up of 25 percent silicon, is, after oxygen, the second most abundant chemical element that's in the earth's crust. Sand, especially quartz, has high percentages of silicon in the form of silicon dioxide (SiO2) and is the base ingredient for semiconductor manufacturing. 

 

After procuring raw sand and separating the silicon, the excess material is disposed of and the silicon is purified in multiple steps to finally reach semiconductor manufacturing quality which is called electronic grade silicon. The resulting purity is so great that electronic grade silicon may only have one alien atom for every one billion silicon atoms. After the purification process, the silicon enters the melting phase. In this picture you can see how one big crystal is grown from the purified silicon melt. The resulting mono-crystal is called an ingot.

 

A mono-crystal ingot is produced from electronic grade silicon. One ingot weighs approximately 100 kilograms (or 220 pounds) and has a silicon purity of 99.9999 percent. 

 

The ingot is then moved onto the slicing phase where individual silicon discs, called wafers, are sliced thin. Some ingots can stand higher than five feet. Several different diameters of ingots exist depending on the required wafer size. Today, CPUs are commonly made on 300 mm wafers.

 

Once cut, the wafers are polished until they have flawless, mirror-smooth surfaces. Intel doesn't produce its own ingots and wafers, and instead purchases manufacturing-ready wafers from third-party companies. Intel’s advanced 45 nm High-K/Metal Gate process uses wafers with a diameter of 300 mm (or 12-inches). When Intel first began making chips, it printed circuits on 50 mm (2-inches) wafers. These days, Intel uses 300 mm wafers, resulting in decreased costs per chip.

 

The blue liquid, depicted above, is a photo resist finish similar to those used in film for photography. The wafer spins during this step to allow an evenly-distributed coating that's smooth and also very thin. 

 

At this stage, the photo-resistant finish is exposed to ultra violet (UV) light. The chemical reaction triggered by the UV light is similar to what happens to film material in a camera the moment you press the shutter button. 

Areas of the resist on the wafer that have been exposed to UV light will become soluble. The exposure is done using masks that act like stencils. When used with UV light, masks create the various circuit patterns. The building of a CPU essentially repeats this process over and over until multiple layers are stacked on top of each other. 

A lens (middle) reduces the mask's image to a small focal point. The resulting "print" on the wafer is typically four times smaller, linearly, than the mask's pattern.

 

In the picture we have a representation of what a single transistor would appear like if we could see it with the naked eye. A transistor acts as a switch, controlling the flow of electrical current in a computer chip. Intel researchers have developed transistors so small that they claim roughly 30 million of them could fit on the head of a pin. 

 

After being exposed to UV light, the exposed blue photo resist areas are completely dissolved by a solvent. This reveals a pattern of photo resist made by the mask. The beginnings of transistors, interconnects, and other electrical contacts begin to grow from this point.

 

The photo resist layer protects wafer material that should not be etched away. Areas that were exposed will be etched away with chemicals.

 

After the etching, the photo resist is removed and the desired shape becomes visible. 

 

More photo resist (blue) is applied and then re-exposed to UV light. Exposed photo resist is then washed off again before the next step, which is called ion doping. This is the step where ion particles are exposed to the wafer, allowing the silicon to change its chemical properties in a way that allows the CPU to control the flow of electricity. 

 

Through a process called ion implantation (one form of a process called doping) the exposed areas of the silicon wafer are bombarded with ions. Ions are implanted in the silicon wafer to alter the way silicon?i these areas conduct electricity. Ions are propelled onto the surface of the wafer at very high velocities. An electrical field accelerates the ions to a speed of over 300,000 km/hour (roughly 185,000 mph) 

 

After the ion implantation, the photo resist will be removed and the material that should have been doped (green) now has alien atoms implanted. 

 

This transistor is close to being finished. Three holes have been etched into the insulation layer (magenta color) above the transistor. These three holes will be filled with copper, which will make up the connections to other transistors. 

 

The wafers are put into a copper sulphate solution at this stage. Copper ions are deposited onto the transistor through a process called electroplating. The copper ions travel from the positive terminal (anode) to the negative terminal (cathode) which is represented by the wafer. 

 

The copper ions settle as a thin layer on the wafer surface. 

 

  The excess material is polished off leaving a very thin layer of copper. 

 

Multiple metal layers are created to interconnects (think wires) in between the various transistors. How these connections have to be “wired” is determined by the architecture and design teams that develop the functionality of the respective processor (for example, Intel’s Core i7 processor). While computer chips look extremely flat, they may actually have over 20 layers to form complex circuitry. If you look at a magnified view of a chip, you will see an intricate network of circuit lines and transistors that look like a futuristic, multi-layered highway system. 

 

This fraction of a ready wafer is being put through a first functionality test. In this stage test patterns are fed into every single chip and the response from the chip monitored and compared to "the right answer." 

After tests determine that the wafer has a good yield of functioning processor units, the wafer is cut into pieces (called dies). 

 

The dies that responded with the right answer to the test pattern will be put forward for the next step (packaging). Bad dies are discarded. Several years ago, Intel made key chains out of bad CPU dies. 

 

This is an individual die, which has been cut out in the previous step (slicing). The die shown here is a die of an Intel Core i7 processor. 

 

The substrate, the die, and the heatspreader are put together to form a completed processor. The green substrate builds the electrical and mechanical interface for the processor to interact with the rest of the PC system. The silver heatspreader is a thermal interface where a cooling solution will be applied. This will keep the processor cool during operation.

 

A microprocessor is the most complex manufactured product on earth. In fact, it takes hundreds of steps and only the most important ones have been visualized in this picture story. 

 

During this final test the processors will be tested for their key characteristics (among the tested characteristics are power dissipation and maximum frequency).

 

Based on the test result of class testing processors with the same capabilities are put into the same transporting trays. This process is called "binning". Binning determines the maximum operating frequency of a processor, and batches are divided and sold according to stable specifications.

 

The manufactured and tested processors (again Intel Core i7 processor is shown here) either go to system manufacturers in trays or into retail stores in a box. Many thanks to Intel for supplying the text and photos in this picture story. Check out Intel's site for full size images of this entire process.

10 Breathtaking Viewing Platforms around the World Dachstein Sky Walk ( Austria ) Nicknamed the "balcony of the alps," the Dachstein Sky Walk is formally enthroned at 2,700 m above sea-level, high up on the 250 m vertical rock face of the Hunerkogel. A 360 degree panorama allows the visitor a view of Slovenia in the south to the Czech Republic in the north. The Sky Walk is distinctly higher than the platforms of the Niagara Falls or even the one at the Iguazu waterfalls in Brazil . Aurland Lookout ( Norway ) Architects Todd Saunders and Tommie Wilhelmsen were commissioned to design a scenic rest-stop 2'000ft above Aurland fjord in Norway and came up with this beauty wining the first prize in Norwegian tourist routes competition. The outermost end of the horizontal platform - which curves to form the structure's support - is closed off by a sheet of glass, offering an incredible view towards the ground for all those with the guts to make the trip to the end.   Grand Canyon Skywalk (Arizona - USA) This horseshoe-shaped pant-filler hangs approximately 4000ft above the floor and extends 65ft beyond the edge of the Grand Canyon . The Horseshoe shaped skywalk is constructed of glass walls 4 inches thick and visitors must don special scratch-proof socks as they partake in the view. The work is a true engineering feat that can hold up to 70 tons (roughly 14 African Elephants) and withstands winds of 100mph. Suspended platform at Iguazu Falls (Brazil and Argentina)

While the falls themselves are magnificent, their setting in a huge subtropical nature reserve makes visiting even more enjoyable.
To fully appreciate their size and splendor it's worthwhile viewing the falls from the skywalk. The viewing platform is so close you are instantly drenched by spray and deafened by the roar of water plunging over an 80 metre cliff.

Auckland's Sky Tower (New Zealand)

Auckland 's 328m Sky Tower is the southern hemisphere's tallest structure. It took 2000 tonnes of reinforcing steel, 660 tonnes of structural steel and 15,000 cubic metres of concrete to erect it. It can withstand 200km/h winds, earthquakes up to eight on the Richter scale and on a clear day, visibility is around 82km. The highest indoor point is Sky Deck, which has seamless glass giving unimpeded 360º views.
 

Illawarra Fly Tree Top Walk (Australia)

This walk opened recently after five months of construction.. Located at Knights Hill up high on the escarpment near Robertson in the Southern Highlands, the Illawarra Fly Tree Top Walk allows visitors to walk among the rainforest canopy 25 metres above the ground on a steel platform. The 500m elevated walkway features cantilever arms that take visitors to the edge of the escarpment and offer inspiring views of the coastline from Kiama through to Shellharbour.

Landscape Promontory (Switzerland)

The landscape promontory is a suspended viewing platform designed by Paolo Bürgi as part of the Cardada project, a revitalization of the Cardada mountain that is expected to finish in 2010. The passageway is made of steel and titanium leads to the lookout platform with a view of Lago Maggiore. The landscape panorama is not the only thing that visitors are meant to appreciate. Symbols in the paving with accompanying texts in the railing provide references to history and literature.
 

Infinity Room at House on the Rock (Wisconsin - USA)

The House on the Rock, originally opened in 1959, is a complex of architecturally unique rooms, streets, gardens and shops designed by Alex Jordan, Jr. It is located in Spring Green, Wisconsin and is a regional tourist attraction. The Infinity Room at the House extends several hundred feet over the valley, without supports underneath, and is lined with over 3000 handmade windows.

 

Il binocolo ( Italy )

Within the gardens of Trauttmansdorff castle in Italy you'll find this charming steel platform poking out through the trees, its name (meaning 'the binoculars') coming from the shape of the platform's small roof and the view of the surrounding landscape. Designed by architect Matteo Thun.

 

Top of Tyrol (Austria)

Top of Tyrol by Astearchitecture is a viewing platform located 3,000 m above sea level at the Stubai Glacier in Tyrol , Austria . Weathering steel was used in the construction of this structure to account for the extreme weather conditions so you can stand 9 metres away from the mountain with a perfect view of Stubai glacier.